1. The Broad Usage of the Danube River in Various Arts
"Danube" is a river that perhaps has the most representation and is most frequently used as inspiration, theme, or motif in European arts. Its appearance as a leitmotif isn't hard to find. It holds great significance not only in classical literature and music, considered higher forms, but also in lower, more trivial art forms. One might even speak of intermediality[1] in cases like when the waltz "The Blue Danube" by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, which enchanted the world, appears in a very popular animated children's film called Bugs Bunny. In this specific case, classical music in an animated film could be considered an example of an intermedial quote. When classical music is used in an animated film, it could be as a quote or reference to the original compositions or composers. This music conveys a certain context or emotional quality from the original work into a new media format.
For example, if a cartoon uses Mozart's symphony or Beethoven's sonata, it could be considered an intermedial quote because classical music is transferred from the original context of classical music to a new context of animated film. This quote can add depth or meaning to the scene in the animated film since the audience can recognize or associate certain emotions or connotations with the chosen musical piece.
Thanks to the episode "A Corny Concerto" from the mentioned film, which has become a cult favorite among new generations, this waltz has been listened to millions of times, despite the fact that the episode was released in 1943. For trivial art, whose primary goal is often entertainment, the achievement of preserving the popularity of a classical music piece in this way and after so many years is a significant success. Listening to and watching the episode where ducklings swim to Strauss's waltz "The Blue Danube" has become a daily routine for many children, and the Danube River might be the first river whose name they remember. Therefore, we should not underestimate the positive aspects of trivial arts.
Taking into account that it is the second largest river in Europe, its influence is not so surprising. It is important to mention that the significance of the Danube is not limited to the countries through which it flows. Taking Bosnia and Herzegovina[2] and Ukraine as examples, it will be discovered that despite the fact that the Danube does not flow through these countries, they have cultural, economic, and regional connections with it. All the countries through which the Danube flows or which are involved in its watershed use its watercourse for building hydroelectric power plants, river transport, and similar purposes. This is also the case with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine, with Ukraine having more ports, one of which is used for drinking water supply. However, the focus of this text will be on Ukraine, specifically the portrayal of the Danube River in Ukrainian songs. The Danube River is of great importance to Ukraine, especially when considering the benefits of its largest ports: Izmail, Reni, and Ust-Dunav.
2. Analysis of Ukrainian songs mentioning the Danube River
Large rivers often bring significant floods, and Ukraine is no exception to this. These floods occur in the Danube watershed (which partially lies in Ukraine), specifically in the Tisza River basin. Floods can also leave a strong mark on the history of a people and a country. Anything that leaves a strong mark can serve as inspiration for an artist[3].
In conclusion, after analyzing two selected songs and familiarizing oneself with the lyrics of other songs to be mentioned, it will be possible to determine whether this is the case with Ukrainian songs. It will be established whether the Danube is depicted due to floods as a potential natural threat to the people living around it, or whether its portrayal is positive. All other aspects besides the cultural one will not be in focus, as the focus will be on Ukrainian songs that mention the Danube. In the following text, I will proceed to analyze the motif of the Danube River in Ukrainian songs.
2.1 Дунаю, Дунаю, чому смутен течеш?/ Danube, Danube, why do you flow so confusedly?
If we were to start the analysis of Ukrainian songs diachronically, we would go back far into the past and start with a song that is considered one of the oldest texts in Ukrainian folklore[4]. The text of the song "Dunayu, Dunayu, why do you flow confusedly?"[5] was found in 1571, but by a twist of fate, the first reconstruction of the text as we know it today was presented in a publication by Ukrainian linguist Oleksandr Potebnya (Mushinka, M. (2000). "Dunayu, Dunayu, why do you flow confusedly?" (New insights into the history of research and the place of the oldest record of Ukrainian folk song). Folk Art and Ethnography, p. 5.) centuries later. It took some time to establish and decipher the true meaning of the text. The Ukrainian language also evolved significantly over time, with many speakers and dialects, which made it difficult to decipher the meaning of the entire text. The melody of the song was unknown. Professor Sofia Hrytsa devised the melody and published it in her book "Melos of Ukrainian folk epic" (Hrytsa, Sofia Iosifovna (1979). Melos of Ukrainian folk epic. Kyiv: Scientific Thought. p. 247.). The sound of the lyre is dominant in the melody of this song. You can listen to the song at the following link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cG1pondxOt0
In this song, the Danube not only serves as the main setting where the plot unfolds but also signifies the inner emotion of Emperor Stefan, who is puzzled by the decision they must make regarding their future. The appearance of the Danube's confusion (personified with human traits, as a river cannot be confused, but its waves can evoke the inner feeling of human confusion) corresponds to what we experience when listening to the song. Despite being at opposite ends, Emperor Stefan ultimately chooses love with a common girl. It's interesting that the deep Danube in this case also signifies a possible end of life, as the girl threatened to jump into it. The song not only began with the Danube but also ended with it. It would be hard to imagine this song without it, as it represents more than just a usual setting that could be easily replaced.
It's interesting to mention the white fish[6] as one of the reasons why the Danube appears confused. The fish is one of the oldest symbols of Christianity. The question is how important this meaning is for interpreting the song, unless there is a deeper socio-political context (given that Turks and Tatars are mentioned as enemies), it could be significant. In that case, the Danube could be interpreted as an extremely important (almost sacred) space, where whoever rules this river has a strategic advantage, both literally and metaphorically, as this river, as water - the source of life
2.2 Їхав козак за Дунай/ The Cossack rode across the Danube
"The Cossack Rode Across the Danube" is one of the most well-known Ukrainian songs. It was written by Ukrainian philosopher and poet Semen Klimovskij[7]. He was a Cossack, and inspired by his military calling, he managed to write several texts among which this song was found. Although the author wrote the text during his lifetime in the 18th century, the text itself was discovered only in the 20th century. This is a common occurrence with folk songs since the original texts were created far in the past. The song depicts a conversation between a Cossack[8] preparing to embark on a military campaign and his beloved, who opposes her beloved's departure. Despite her efforts to keep him, the warrior remains steadfast - he mounts his black horse and departs, advising the girl not to grieve or cry, but to patiently await his triumphant return.
If we analyze the texts of Danube, Danube, why do you flow so confusedly? and The Cossack rode across the Danube, we can notice that both poems are about the bravery of the Cossacks and their love. The second mentioned poem describes the journey of the Cossack as he rides across the Danube. It portrays him as a brave and fearless hero who faces various challenges and battles along the way. The Danube serves as a symbolic border that the Cossack crosses, representing his daring nature and readiness to venture into unknown territories for his mission. In folklore tradition, the "Danube" often symbolizes more than just a river. The motif of the Cossack's separation from his beloved girl, the figurative structure of the song, and the nature of the melody all contribute to categorizing it as a romance.
2. 3 Recent Ukrainian folk songs
The fact that the Danube holds a significant position for Ukrainians is evidenced by other Ukrainian folk songs that can be found. Some of them are ten years old, so it can be noticed that the inspiration the Danube evokes in artists does not change. Here is a list of Ukrainian folk songs that mention the Danube with links through which they can be listened to:
Danube, Danube[9] - Дунаю, Дунаю (youtube.com)
Sokoli – Quiet Danube, 2003. (Соколи - Тихий Дунай (youtube.com))
Wheat rustles like the Danube - Volodimir Ivasjuk, Stjepan Pušik, 1979. (Шумить пшениця, як Дунай - Володимир Івасюк, слова Степана Пушика (youtube.com))
Oh, by the grove near the Danube [10] - Тріо Маренич - Ой у гаю при Дунаю (youtube.com)
In these songs, the Danube is mainly referred to as a symbol of nature and a witness to various events, especially as a witness to various loves. They don't have a strong connection to history because the focus is on the present and the theme of love.
Conclusion
After a certain amount of research conducted in this study, it can be concluded that although not the main river in Ukraine, as that place is occupied by the Dnieper River, the Danube has significant historical influence and importance. Its influence has spread across various spheres from art to geopolitics. Of course, these spheres are also interconnected. The biodiversity of the Danube (mentioning the white sturgeon) in the song Danube, Danube, why do you flow so confusedly? is one such example. There is also the indispensable history of the Cossacks that runs through Ukrainian folk songs. It is also connected to the Danube because the Danube was of great importance to the Cossacks. It served as a natural border for them; they had fertile soil in that area and a suitable space for trade, which was very important for their economy. There was even the Danube Sich, which is the name for the military organization of the Cossacks who were settled along the Danube River. Today, there is a festival under the same name, celebrating Cossack culture and tradition with various programs for visitors.
The Danube is portrayed in the mentioned songs as a witness to everything happening around it, whether battles or love. In the earlier text, the flooding of the Neva River was mentioned, which writer Alexander Pushkin used as inspiration for his poem. In Ukrainian folk songs, as we have seen, the Danube is not depicted in a documented manner causing a natural disaster like the Neva River. In these songs, the Danube is always portrayed in a positive or neutral light. It can be concluded that the Danube has left a huge mark on Ukrainian culture and tradition regardless of whether it flows through it. It would be unthinkable to separate them. Such a strong connection can only suggest further development of Ukrainian culture and tradition with the Danube.
[1] Pavao Pavličić defines intermediality as "the procedure by which structures and materials characteristic of one medium are transferred to another," with "one of those media usually being artistic" (Pavličić, Pavao. "Intertextuality and Intermediality: Typological Essays." In: Intertextuality and Intermediality. Zagreb, Institute for Literary Science, 1988. P. 170).
Intertextuality is a concept from literary theory and cultural studies that refers to complex relationships between different texts. This concept suggests that texts are not isolated entities but are interconnected and refer to, quote, or reinterpret each other. Intertextuality pertains to relationships between different texts within the same medium, specifically within the same art form (e.g., literature or film, in cases where we recognize a "film quote" in a movie, a scene, episode, dialogue, or style from another, usually old or very popular, cult film).
On the other hand, intermediality refers to the interaction between different media (different arts) or forms of expression.
So, the main difference between intertextuality and intermediality lies in the fact that intertextuality concerns texts within the same art form, while intermediality deals with the interaction between different arts or media.
[2] If we take Bosnia and Herzegovina as an example, information about the geographical connection of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the Danube River can be found in the following quote taken from the official website of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River:
The waters of Bosnia and Herzegovina are split between the Danube River Basin District and the Adriatic Sea Basin. Some 40.2% of the Sava river sub-basin, the second largest sub-basin of the Danube River Basin, lies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The rest of the watershed is shared by Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia. (Bosnia-Herzegovina | ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River)
All countries within the Danube River Basin, whether the Danube flows through them or not (but has its tributaries within them), often take advantage of their opportunities to use the basin for hydroelectric power and navigation. The same applies to Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine, with Ukraine having more ports, one of which is also used for drinking water supply, which is not the case in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
[3] For example, Alexander Pushkin, the Adam of Russian literature, in one of his most famous poems "The Bronze Horseman," used one of the greatest floods of the Neva River as the main plot. In doing so, Pushkin referred to a natural disaster that became a historical event. The author used available documents about the flood as a source and material for his work.
[4] To qualify something as folklore, it is essential that it has been orally transmitted from one person to another without the aid of any written texts." (Ben-Amos, 2010: 127) Therefore, by definition, folk songs are anonymous. We can only speak of the first authors who recorded the text in the form that is used today.
[5] The song is called "Danube, Danube, why do you flow confusedly?" Some translate the adjective "confusedly" as "sad." This could be a classic example of a false friend, where the same lexeme in various languages can have different meanings. The word "smutný" exists in Czech and Slovak languages and means "sad." To maintain consistency with translations from Ukrainian sources, it is probably better to use the adjective "confusedly" instead.
[6] It's very possible that the mention refers to the largest fish swimming in that river, considered the largest fish in all rivers, the Beluga Sturgeon. Its swimming certainly can cause ripples. It's also important to note that this fish is considered one of the oldest sturgeon species on the planet, but unfortunately, they are currently fighting for their survival. This fish has become an endangered species because people catch them to obtain expensive caviar.
[7] According to the definition of folk songs, this song cannot be classified into that group because the author is known.
[8] According to the Croatian Encyclopedia, the following definition of Cossacks is given: Cossacks (Polish kozak < Ukrainian козaк < Russian кaзaк: free man), members of a military organization (Cossackdom, Russian кaзaчeствo) that had a significant influence on Russian, Ukrainian, and Polish-Lithuanian history. Cossackdom was a collective term for a number of territorially separated military organizations, which differed from each other in terms of time and manner of formation, state affiliation, ethnic composition, and structure; their common feature was the defense of state borders. (Cossacks - Croatian Encyclopedia) In the Dnieper and Don regions, the Cossacks formed a defensive as well as an offensive military province. It is well known that the Cossacks were predominantly Ukrainians, and the beginning of their formation is considered to be the time when the Kievan Rus' still existed, roughly in the 10th century.
Cossacks have been extensively written about in literature. One of the most famous works where a lot can be read about them is the epic novel "And Quiet Flows the Don" written by Mikhail Sholokhov. Through descriptions and events in the novel "And Quiet Flows the Don," the Cossacks are portrayed as strong, independent, and proud people who found themselves amidst turbulent historical changes. Some quotes from the book confirm this: "For Cossacks to cry - that's a great shame." (Book 4, Part 7, Page 8) "You are a Cossack, your job is to cut without asking questions. In battle, killing the enemy is a sacred act. For everyone who is killed, God will punish you with one sin, just as He does for a snake. You cannot destroy an animal unnecessarily - a cow, for example, or something else - but you cannot humiliate a person. He's filthy, man... Dirty, smells of the earth, lives like a fly mushroom." (Book 1, Part 3, Page 7)
[9] The author of the text is unknown, which is common in folk songs. They are usually passed down through oral tradition, from generation to generation. Often, due to such conditions, there are changes in the text.
[10] The author of this text is also unknown.